Content moderator mental health, secondary trauma, and well-being: a cross-sectional study

Article

Spence, R., Bifulco, A., Bradbury, P., Martellozzo, E. and DeMarco, J. 2024. Content moderator mental health, secondary trauma, and well-being: a cross-sectional study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 27 (2), pp. 149-155. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2023.0298
TypeArticle
TitleContent moderator mental health, secondary trauma, and well-being: a cross-sectional study
AuthorsSpence, R., Bifulco, A., Bradbury, P., Martellozzo, E. and DeMarco, J.
Abstract

Content moderators (CMs) analyze and remove offensive or harmful user generated content that has been uploaded to the internet. Jobs which involve exposure to other people's suffering are associated with raised rates of secondary traumatic stress and mental health problems. However, research establishing psychological baseline symptoms in CMs is lacking. This study used an online survey to explore rates of psychological distress, secondary trauma, and well-being in a sample of CMs. Regression analysis explored how various features of the work affected mental health. There was a dose–response effect between frequency of exposure to distressing content and psychological distress and secondary trauma, but not well-being. The results suggested supportive colleagues and feedback about the importance of their role ameliorated this relationship. Implications for CM working conditions are discussed.

Keywordscontent moderation; mental health; secondary trauma; well-being; survey; cyberpsychology; behavior and social networking
Sustainable Development Goals3 Good health and well-being
Middlesex University ThemeHealth & Wellbeing
Research GroupCentre for Abuse and Trauma Studies (CATS)
PublisherMary Ann Liebert
JournalCyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking
ISSN2152-2715
Electronic2152-2723
Publication dates
Online29 Dec 2023
Print09 Feb 2024
Publication process dates
Accepted26 Nov 2023
Deposited03 Jan 2024
Output statusPublished
Accepted author manuscript
File Access Level
Open
Copyright Statement

This is the accepted version of the following article: Ruth Spence, Antonia Bifulco, Paula Bradbury, Elena Martellozzo, and Jeffrey DeMarco. Content Moderator Mental Health, Secondary Trauma, and Well-being: A Cross-Sectional Study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking.Feb 2024.149-155, which has now been formally published in final form at Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking at https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2023.0298. This version of the article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance with the Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishers’ self-archiving terms and conditions.

Digital Object Identifier (DOI)https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2023.0298
Web of Science identifierMEDLINE:38153846
WOS:001165454900001
LanguageEnglish
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Bifulco, A., Schimmenti, A., Jacobs, C., Bunn, A. and Rusu, A. 2014. Risk factors and psychological outcomes of bullying victimization: a community-based study. Child Indicators Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-014-9236-8
Adverse childhood experiences and their impact on frequency, severity, and the individual function of nonsuicidal self-injury in youth
Kaess, M., Parzer, P., Mattern, M., Plener, P., Bifulco, A., Resch, F. and Brunner, R. 2013. Adverse childhood experiences and their impact on frequency, severity, and the individual function of nonsuicidal self-injury in youth. Psychiatry Research. 206 (2-3), pp. 265-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.10.012
Life events
Bifulco, A. 2013. Life events. in: Gabe, J. and Monaghan, L. (ed.) Key concepts in medical sociology London, UK SAGE Publications. pp. 45-50
Setting up a youth violence prevention project in a London hospital emergency department
Ilan-Clarke, Y., Bunn, A., DeMarco, J., Bifulco, A., Criddle, J. and Holdsworth, G. 2013. Setting up a youth violence prevention project in a London hospital emergency department. Journal of Public Mental Health. 12 (2), pp. 80-92. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPMH-09-2012-0005
Understanding alexithymia in female adolescents: the role of attachment style
Oskis, A., Clow, A., Hucklebridge, F., Bifulco, A., Jacobs, C. and Loveday, C. 2013. Understanding alexithymia in female adolescents: the role of attachment style. Personality and Individual Differences. 54 (1), pp. 97-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.023
Psychiatrie infantojuvénile en Europe: 68 Grande-Bretagne
Bifulco, A. and Thomas, G. 2012. Psychiatrie infantojuvénile en Europe: 68 Grande-Bretagne. in: Ferrari, P. and Bonnot, O. (ed.) Traité européen de psychiatrie et de psychopathologie de l'enfant et de l'adolescent Paris Lavoisier. pp. 691-697
Caring about attachment in young people in residential care: the use of the attachment style interview. Report of a voluntary sector and university partnership
Jacobs, C., Ilan-Clarke, Y. and Bifulco, A. 2012. Caring about attachment in young people in residential care: the use of the attachment style interview. Report of a voluntary sector and university partnership. Community Care Inform.
Vulnerability, life events and depression amongst Moslem Malaysian women: comparing those married and those divorced or separated
Abdul Kadir, N. and Bifulco, A. 2011. Vulnerability, life events and depression amongst Moslem Malaysian women: comparing those married and those divorced or separated. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 46 (9), pp. 853-862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0249-4
Attachment style and psychological adjustment in couples
Conde, A., Figueirido, B. and Bifulco, A. 2011. Attachment style and psychological adjustment in couples. Attachment & Human Development. 13 (3), pp. 271-291. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2011.562417
Condividere e condividere allo stesso modo.Il maltrattamento è un’esperienza condivisa dai fratelli? [= To share and share alike: is maltreatment an experience shared by siblings?]
Bifulco, A., Ilan-Clarke, Y., Hannan, L. and Schimmenti, A. 2008. Condividere e condividere allo stesso modo.Il maltrattamento è un’esperienza condivisa dai fratelli? [= To share and share alike: is maltreatment an experience shared by siblings?]. Noos – Aggiornamenti in Psichiatria. 3, pp. 253-274.
Quando i genitori maltrattano i figli. Le radici psicopatologiche dello sviluppo affettivo (When the parents maltreat their young: the developmental roots of psychopathology)
Schimmenti, A. and Bifulco, A. 2008. Quando i genitori maltrattano i figli. Le radici psicopatologiche dello sviluppo affettivo (When the parents maltreat their young: the developmental roots of psychopathology). in: Caretti, V. and Creparo, G. (ed.) Trauma e psicopatologia. Un approccio evolutivo-relazionale Rome Astrolabi. pp. 94-131
Le esperienze di maltrattamento vissute dai fratelli: tra ambiente condiviso e non condiviso
Schimmenti, A. and Bifulco, A. 2010. Le esperienze di maltrattamento vissute dai fratelli: tra ambiente condiviso e non condiviso. in: Schimmenti, V. (ed.) Oltre la madre: relazioni familiari e sviluppo psicologico Milan, Italy FrancoAngeli. pp. 114-129
Loss trauma
Bifulco, A. 2007. Loss trauma. in: Encyclopedia of Stress Academic Press. pp. 612-615
Il bambino maltrattato: le radici della depressione nel trauma e nell'abuso infantile
Bifulco, A. and Moran, P. 2007. Il bambino maltrattato: le radici della depressione nel trauma e nell'abuso infantile. Rome Astrolabio Ubaldini.
Familial patterns of stress
Bifulco, A. 2007. Familial patterns of stress. in: Fink, G. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Stress Academic Press. pp. 1-6
Wednesday's child: research into women's experience of neglect and abuse in childhood and adult depression
Bifulco, A. and Moran, P. 1998. Wednesday's child: research into women's experience of neglect and abuse in childhood and adult depression. London, U.K. Routledge.
Risk and resilience in young Londoners
Bifulco, A. 2009. Risk and resilience in young Londoners. in: Brom, D., Pat-Horenczyk, R. and Ford, J. (ed.) Treating traumatized children: risk, resilience and recovery Hove, U.K. Routledge. pp. 117-130
Depressed mothers and their children: attachment issues
Bifulco, A. 2010. Depressed mothers and their children: attachment issues. in: Kohen, D. (ed.) Oxford Textbook of Women and Mental Health Oxford, U.K. Oxford University Press (OUP). pp. 271-277
History of childhood abuse in Portuguese parents
Figuieredo, B., Bifulco, A., Paivia, C., Maia, A., Fernandes, E. and Matos, R. 2004. History of childhood abuse in Portuguese parents. Child Abuse and Neglect. 28 (6), pp. 669-682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.11.021
Maternal attachment style and depression associated with childbirth ; preliminary results from a European and US cross-cultural study
Bifulco, A., Figueiredo, B., Guedeney, N., Gorman, L., Hayes, S., Muzik, M., Glatigny-Dallay, E., Valoriani, V., Kammerer, M. and Henshaw, C. 2004. Maternal attachment style and depression associated with childbirth ; preliminary results from a European and US cross-cultural study. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 184, pp. s31-s37.
Attachment style measurement: a clinical and epidemiological perspective
Bifulco, A. 2002. Attachment style measurement: a clinical and epidemiological perspective. Attachment & Human Development. 4 (2), pp. 180-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730210157501
Lifetime stressors and recurrent depression: preliminary findings of the Adult Life Phase Interview (ALPHI)
Bifulco, A., Bernazzani, O., Moran, P. and Ball, C. 2000. Lifetime stressors and recurrent depression: preliminary findings of the Adult Life Phase Interview (ALPHI). Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 35 (6), pp. 264-275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001270050238
Motherhood as a vulnerability factor in major depression: the role of negative pregnancy experiences
Bernazzani, O. and Bifulco, A. 2003. Motherhood as a vulnerability factor in major depression: the role of negative pregnancy experiences. Social Science & Medicine. 56 (6), pp. 1249-1260. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00123-5
Malaysian moslem mothers' experience of depression and service use
Abdul Kadir, N. and Bifulco, A. 2010. Malaysian moslem mothers' experience of depression and service use. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry. 34 (3), pp. 443-467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-010-9183-x
Exploring psychological abuse in childhood. I: developing a new interview scale
Moran, P., Bifulco, A., Ball, C., Jacobs, C. and Benaim, K. 2002. Exploring psychological abuse in childhood. I: developing a new interview scale. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic. 66 (Summer), pp. 213-240.
Childhood experiences of care and abuse (CECA): validierung der Deutschen version des fragebogenund korrespondierenden Interview sowie Ergebnisse einer Untersuchung von Zusammenhangen belastenader Kindheitserlebnisse mit suizdalen Verhaltensweisen
Kaess, M., Parzer, P., Mattern, M., Resch, F., Bifulco, A. and Brunner, R. 2011. Childhood experiences of care and abuse (CECA): validierung der Deutschen version des fragebogenund korrespondierenden Interview sowie Ergebnisse einer Untersuchung von Zusammenhangen belastenader Kindheitserlebnisse mit suizdalen Verhaltensweisen. Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie. 39 (4), pp. 243-252. https://doi.org/10.1024/1422-4917/a000115
Investigating police practice in the UK: achieving best evidence in work with young victims of abuse
Davidson, J. and Bifulco, A. 2009. Investigating police practice in the UK: achieving best evidence in work with young victims of abuse. Pakistan Journal of Criminology. 1 (3), pp. 19-46.
Childhood experience and sexual offending: the use of the Childhood Experience of Care and Abuse (CECA) interview in forensic psychology research and practice
Bifulco, A. 2006. Childhood experience and sexual offending: the use of the Childhood Experience of Care and Abuse (CECA) interview in forensic psychology research and practice. in: Pham, T. (ed.) L'évaluation diagnostique des agresseurs sexuels Belgium Mardaga Pierre.
Early adversity and depression
Bifulco, A. 2009. Early adversity and depression. in: Ingram, R. (ed.) The International Encyclopedia of Depression New York Springer Publishing Company.
Multi-agency working: Implications for an early-intervention social work team
Moran, P., Jacobs, C., Bunn, A. and Bifulco, A. 2007. Multi-agency working: Implications for an early-intervention social work team. Child & Family Social Work. 12 (2), pp. 143-151. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00452.x
Teenage pregnancy, attachment style, and depression: a comparison of teenage and adult pregnant women in a Portuguese series
Figueiredo, B., Bifulco, A., Pacheco, A., Costa, R. and Magarinho, R. 2006. Teenage pregnancy, attachment style, and depression: a comparison of teenage and adult pregnant women in a Portuguese series. Attachment & Human Development. 8 (2), pp. 123-138. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730600785686
Solutions on Stress (SOS): programmes, packages and products for helping teenagers
Bunn, A., Bifulco, A., Lorenc, A. and Robinson, N. 2007. Solutions on Stress (SOS): programmes, packages and products for helping teenagers. Young Consumers: Insight and Ideas for Responsible Marketers. 8 (1), pp. 29-35. https://doi.org/10.1108/17473610710733758
Exploring psychological abuse in childhood: II. Association with other abuse and adult clinical depression
Bifulco, A., Moran, P., Baines, R., Bunn, A. and Stanford, K. 2002. Exploring psychological abuse in childhood: II. Association with other abuse and adult clinical depression. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic. 66 (3), pp. 241-258.
The Vulnerable Attachment Style Questionnaire (VASQ): an interview-based measure of attachment styles that predict depressive disorder
Bifulco, A., Mahon, J., Kwon, J., Moran, P. and Jacobs, C. 2003. The Vulnerable Attachment Style Questionnaire (VASQ): an interview-based measure of attachment styles that predict depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine. 33 (6), pp. 1099-1110. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291703008237
Problem partners and parenting: exploring linkages with maternal insecure attachment style and adolescent offspring internalizing disorder
Bifulco, A., Moran, P., Jacobs, C. and Bunn, A. 2009. Problem partners and parenting: exploring linkages with maternal insecure attachment style and adolescent offspring internalizing disorder. Attachment & Human Development. 11 (1), pp. 69-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730802500826
Child victims of sexual abuse: children's experience of the investigative process in the criminal justice system
Davidson, J., Bifulco, A., Thomas, G. and Ramsay, M. 2006. Child victims of sexual abuse: children's experience of the investigative process in the criminal justice system. Practice: Social Work in Action. 18 (4), pp. 247-263. https://doi.org/10.1080/09503150601025253
Adult attachment style as mediator between childhood neglect/abuse and adult depression and anxiety
Bifulco, A., Kwon, J., Jacobs, C., Moran, P., Bunn, A. and Beer, N. 2006. Adult attachment style as mediator between childhood neglect/abuse and adult depression and anxiety. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 41 (10), pp. 796-805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-006-0101-z
Adult Attachment Style. II: Its relationship to psychosocial depressive-vulnerability
Bifulco, A., Moran, P., Ball, C. and Lillie, A. 2002. Adult Attachment Style. II: Its relationship to psychosocial depressive-vulnerability. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 37 (2), pp. 60-67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s127-002-8216-x
Adult attachment style. I: Its relationship to clinical depression
Bifulco, A., Moran, P., Ball, C. and Bernazzani, O. 2002. Adult attachment style. I: Its relationship to clinical depression. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 37 (2), pp. 50-59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s127-002-8215-0
Assessing psychosocial risk in pregnant/postpartum women using the Contextual Assessment of Maternity Experience (CAME)
Bernazzani, O., Marks, M., Bifulco, A., Siddle, K., Asten, P. and Conroy, S. 2005. Assessing psychosocial risk in pregnant/postpartum women using the Contextual Assessment of Maternity Experience (CAME). Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 40 (6), pp. 497-508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-005-0917-y
Problem partners and parenting: exploring linkages with maternal insecure attachment style and adolescent offspring internalizing disorder
Bifulco, A., Moran, P., Jacobs, C. and Bunn, A. 2009. Problem partners and parenting: exploring linkages with maternal insecure attachment style and adolescent offspring internalizing disorder. Attachment & Human Development. 11 (1), pp. 69-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730802500826
Concordance between mother and offspring retrospective reports of childhood adversity
Fisher, H., Bunn, A., Jacobs, C., Moran, P. and Bifulco, A. 2011. Concordance between mother and offspring retrospective reports of childhood adversity. Child Abuse and Neglect. 35 (2), pp. 117-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.10.003
The longitudinal psychometric properties of the EAS temperament survey in adolescence
Spence, R., Owens, M. and Goodyer, I. 2013. The longitudinal psychometric properties of the EAS temperament survey in adolescence. Journal of Personality Assessment. 95 (6), pp. 633-639. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2013.819513
Cuidado y protección de menores contra el abuso sexual on line
Martellozzo, E. 2009. Cuidado y protección de menores contra el abuso sexual on line. Cuadernos de Seguridad. 11, pp. 151-181.
Online child sexual abuse by female offenders: an exploratory study
Martellozzo, E., Nehring, D. and Taylor, H. 2010. Online child sexual abuse by female offenders: an exploratory study. International Journal of Cyber Criminology. 4 (1&2), pp. 592-609.
Protecting children online: towards a safer internet
Davidson, J. and Martellozzo, E. 2008. Protecting children online: towards a safer internet. in: Wetherby, G., Williams, K., Birch, P. and Cain, M. (ed.) Sex as crime? Willan. pp. 338-355
Internet sex offenders: individual autonomy, ‘folk devils’ and state control
Martellozzo, E., Davidson, J. and Cambridge Socio-Legal Group 2009. Internet sex offenders: individual autonomy, ‘folk devils’ and state control. in: Sclater, S., Ebtehaj, F., Jackson, E. and Richards, M. (ed.) Regulating autonomy: sex, reproduction and family Oxford, UK Hart Publishing. pp. 129-146
Understanding the perpetrators' online behaviour
Martellozzo, E. 2010. Understanding the perpetrators' online behaviour. in: Davidson, J. and Gottschalk, P. (ed.) Internet child abuse: current research and policy Abingdon, UK Routledge-Cavendish. pp. 104-125
Online child sexual abuse: grooming, policing and child protection in a multi-media world
Martellozzo, E. 2012. Online child sexual abuse: grooming, policing and child protection in a multi-media world. London, UK Routledge.
Item response theory and validity of the NEO-FFI in adolescents
Spence, R., Owens, M. and Goodyer, I. 2012. Item response theory and validity of the NEO-FFI in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences. 53 (6), pp. 801-807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.06.002
Understanding adult attachment in family relationships: assessment and intervention
Bifulco, A. and Thomas, G. 2012. Understanding adult attachment in family relationships: assessment and intervention. Routledge.
Globalization, urbanization & security
Davidson, J. and Martellozzo, E. 2009. Globalization, urbanization & security. in: Cordner, G., Cordner, A. and Das, D. (ed.) Urbanization, policing & security: global perspectives CRC Press.
Clinical and economic outcomes from the UK pilot psychiatric services for personality-disordered offenders
Fortune, Z., Barrett, B., Armstrong, D., Coid, J., Crawford, M., Mudd, D., Rose, D., Slade, M., Spence, R., Tyrer, P. and Moran, P. 2011. Clinical and economic outcomes from the UK pilot psychiatric services for personality-disordered offenders. International Review of Psychiatry. 23 (1), pp. 61-69. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2010.545989
Urbanization and security: moving forward, key themes, and challenges
Davidson, J. and Martellozzo, E. 2009. Urbanization and security: moving forward, key themes, and challenges. in: Cordner, G., Das, D. and Cordner, A. (ed.) Urbanization, policing, and security: global perspectives. CRC Press. pp. 435-440
Sex offenders' use of the Internet.
Martellozzo, E. 2010. Sex offenders' use of the Internet. in: Davidson, J. and Gottschalk, P. (ed.) Internet child abuse: current research and policy. Routledge-Cavendish. pp. 104-125
Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow internet safety programme and exploration of young people's internet safety knowledge.
Davidson, J., Martellozzo, E. and Lorenz, M. 2009. Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow internet safety programme and exploration of young people's internet safety knowledge. Centre for Abuse & Trauma Studies and Kingston University.
Cycle of abuse
Martellozzo, E. and Taylor, H. 2009. Cycle of abuse. Index on Censorship. 38 (1), pp. 117-122. https://doi.org/10.1080/03064220902761106
An evaluation of new services for personality-disordered offenders: staff and service user perspectives
Fortune, Z., Rose, D., Crawford, M., Slade, M., Spence, R., Mudd, D., Barrett, B., Coid, J., Tyrer, P. and Moran, P. 2010. An evaluation of new services for personality-disordered offenders: staff and service user perspectives. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 56 (2), pp. 186-195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764009105281
The Attachment Style Interview (ASI): a support-based adult assessment tool for adoption and fostering practice
Bifulco, A., Jacobs, C., Bunn, A., Thomas, G. and Irving, K. 2008. The Attachment Style Interview (ASI): a support-based adult assessment tool for adoption and fostering practice. Adoption and Fostering. 32 (3), pp. 33-45. https://doi.org/10.1177/030857590803200306
The childhood experience of care and abuse questionnaire (CECA.Q): validation in a community series
Bifulco, A., Bernazzani, O., Moran, P. and Jacobs, C. 2005. The childhood experience of care and abuse questionnaire (CECA.Q): validation in a community series. British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 44 (4), pp. 563-581. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466505X35344
Childhood adversity, parental vulnerability and disorder: examining intergenerational transmission of risk
Bifulco, A., Moran, P., Ball, C., Jacobs, C., Baines, R., Bunn, A. and Cavagin, J. 2002. Childhood adversity, parental vulnerability and disorder: examining intergenerational transmission of risk. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 43 (8), pp. 1075-1086. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00234
Predicting onset of depression: the vulnerability to depression questionnaire
Moran, P., Bifulco, A., Ball, C. and Campbell, C. 2001. Predicting onset of depression: the vulnerability to depression questionnaire. British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 40 (4), pp. 411-427. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466501163896