Electrical impedance tomography for biomedical applications: circuits and systems review

Article

Wu, Y., Hanzaee, F.F., Jiang, D., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2021. Electrical impedance tomography for biomedical applications: circuits and systems review. IEEE Open Journal of Circuits and Systems. 2, pp. 380-397. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCAS.2021.3075302
TypeArticle
TitleElectrical impedance tomography for biomedical applications: circuits and systems review
AuthorsWu, Y., Hanzaee, F.F., Jiang, D., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A.
Abstract

There has been considerable interest in electrical impedance tomography (EIT) to provide low-cost, radiation-free, real-time and wearable means for physiological status monitoring. To be competitive with other well-established imaging modalities, it is important to understand the requirements of the specific application and determine a suitable system design. This paper presents an overview of EIT circuits and systems including architectures, current drivers, analog front-end and demodulation circuits, with emphasis on integrated circuit implementations. Commonly used circuit topologies are detailed, and tradeoffs are discussed to aid in choosing an appropriate design based on the application and system priorities. The paper also describes a number of integrated EIT systems for biomedical applications, as well as discussing current challenges and possible future directions.

KeywordsTomography; Impedance; Voltage measurement; Monitoring; Imaging; Lung; Current measurement; Analog front-end; bioimpedance; current driver; demodulation; electrical impedance tomography (EIT); integrated circuits; wearable technologies
Sustainable Development Goals3 Good health and well-being
Middlesex University ThemeHealth & Wellbeing
PublisherIEEE
JournalIEEE Open Journal of Circuits and Systems
ISSN2644-1225
Publication dates
Online23 Apr 2021
Print18 May 2021
Publication process dates
Submitted07 Dec 2020
Accepted01 Apr 2021
Deposited09 Jan 2025
Output statusPublished
Publisher's version
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File Access Level
Open
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCAS.2021.3075302
Web of Science identifierWOS:000710562200001
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Constantinou, L., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2015. A wideband low-distortion CMOS current driver for tissue impedance analysis. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs. 62 (2), pp. 154-158. https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsii.2014.2387632
Why is EIT so hard, and what are we doing about it?
Adler, A., Grychtol, B. and Bayford, R. 2015. Why is EIT so hard, and what are we doing about it? Physiological Measurement. 36 (6), pp. 1067-1073. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/36/6/1067
Medical Physics: forming and testing solutions to clinical problems
Tsapaki, V. and Bayford, R. 2015. Medical Physics: forming and testing solutions to clinical problems. Physica Medica. 31 (7), pp. 738-740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmp.2015.05.017
Patient specific Parkinson's disease detection for adaptive deep brain stimulation
Mohammed, A., Zamani, M., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2015. Patient specific Parkinson's disease detection for adaptive deep brain stimulation. 2015 37th Annual International Conference Of the IEEE Engineering In Medicine And Biology Society (EMBC). Milan, Italy 25 Aug 2015 IEEE. pp. 1528-1531
16th International Conference on Electrical Bio-impedance and 17th International Conference on Biomedical Applications of Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) [Editorial]
Bayford, R. and Olimar, S. 2017. 16th International Conference on Electrical Bio-impedance and 17th International Conference on Biomedical Applications of Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) [Editorial]. Physiological Measurement. 38 (6), pp. E8-E9. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/aa6a5c
Emerging applications of nanotechnology for diagnosis and therapy of disease: a review
Bayford, R., Rademacher, T., Roitt, I. and Wang, S. 2017. Emerging applications of nanotechnology for diagnosis and therapy of disease: a review. Physiological Measurement. 38 (8). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/aa7182
On the physical limitations for radio frequency absorption in gold nanoparticle suspensions
Nordebo, S., Dalarsson, M., Ivanenko, Y., Sjoeberg, D. and Bayford, R. 2017. On the physical limitations for radio frequency absorption in gold nanoparticle suspensions. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 50 (15). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/aa5a89
Detecting colorectal cancer using electrical impedance spectroscopy: an ex vivo feasibility study
Pathiraja, A., Ziprin, P., Shiraz, A., Mirnezami, R., Tizzard, A., Brown, B., Demosthenous, A. and Bayford, R. 2017. Detecting colorectal cancer using electrical impedance spectroscopy: an ex vivo feasibility study. Physiological Measurement. 38 (6), pp. 1278-1288. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/aa68ce
Detection of the tau protein in human serum by a sensitive four-electrode electrochemical biosensor
Wang, S., Acha, D., Shah, A., Hills, F., Roitt, I., Demosthenous, A. and Bayford, R. 2017. Detection of the tau protein in human serum by a sensitive four-electrode electrochemical biosensor. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 92, pp. 482-488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.10.077
Analysis and compensation for errors in electrical impedance tomography images and ventilation-­related measures due to serial data collection
Yerworth, R., Frerichs, I. and Bayford, R. 2017. Analysis and compensation for errors in electrical impedance tomography images and ventilation-­related measures due to serial data collection. Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing. 31 (5), pp. 1093-1101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10877-016-9920-y
EIT2015: promoting electrical impedance tomography as a non-invasive monitoring technology
Bayford, R. and Solà, J. 2016. EIT2015: promoting electrical impedance tomography as a non-invasive monitoring technology. Physiological Measurement. 37 (6), pp. E3-E4. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/37/6/E3
A novel active electrode IC for wearable EIT system
Wu, Y., Langlois, P., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2016. A novel active electrode IC for wearable EIT system. 16th International Conference on Electrical Bio-Impedance (ICEBI) and 17th International Conference on Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT). Stockholm 19 - 23 Jun 2016 Zenodo. pp. 138 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.55753
Alternate algorithm to reconstruct shape in wearable device
Tizzard, A., Demosthenous, A. and Bayford, R. 2016. Alternate algorithm to reconstruct shape in wearable device. 16th International Conference on Electrical Bio-Impedance (ICEBI) and 17th International Conference on Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT). Stockholm 19 - 23 Jun 2016 Zenodo. pp. 128 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.55753
Design of a CMOS active electrode IC for wearable electrical impedance tomography systems
Wu, Y., Langlois, P., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2016. Design of a CMOS active electrode IC for wearable electrical impedance tomography systems. 2016 IEEE International Symposium Circuits and Systems (ISCAS). Montreal, QC, Canada 22 - 25 May 2016 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 846-849 https://doi.org/10.1109/ISCAS.2016.7527373
XVth International Conference on Electrical Bio-Impedance and the XIVth Conference on Electrical Impedance Tomography (Heilbad Heiligenstadt, Germany, 22–25 April 2013)
Bayford, R. and Pliquett, U. 2014. XVth International Conference on Electrical Bio-Impedance and the XIVth Conference on Electrical Impedance Tomography (Heilbad Heiligenstadt, Germany, 22–25 April 2013). Physiological Measurement. 35 (6), pp. 945-946. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/35/6/915
MPS: improving exact string matching through pattern character frequency, journal of data processing
Sahota, V., Li, M. and Bayford, R. 2013. MPS: improving exact string matching through pattern character frequency, journal of data processing. Journal of Data Processing. 3 (3), pp. 127-137.
The effect of serial data collection on the accuracy of electrical impedance tomography images
Yerworth, R. and Bayford, R. 2013. The effect of serial data collection on the accuracy of electrical impedance tomography images. Physiological Measurement. 34 (6), pp. 659-669. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/34/6/659
Bioimpedance imaging: an overview of potential clinical applications
Bayford, R. and Tizzard, A. 2012. Bioimpedance imaging: an overview of potential clinical applications. Analyst. 137 (20), pp. 4635-4643. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2AN35874C
Whither lung EIT: where are we, where do we want to go and what do we need to get there?
Adler, A., Amato, M., Arnold, J., Bayford, R., Bodenstein, M. and Böhm, S. 2012. Whither lung EIT: where are we, where do we want to go and what do we need to get there? Physiological Measurement. 33 (5), pp. 679-694. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/33/5/679
A cable theory based biophysical model of resistance change in crab peripheral nerve and human cerebral cortex during neuronal depolarisation: implications for electrical impedance tomography of fast neural activity in the brain
Liston, A., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2012. A cable theory based biophysical model of resistance change in crab peripheral nerve and human cerebral cortex during neuronal depolarisation: implications for electrical impedance tomography of fast neural activity in the brain. Med Biol Eng Comput. 50 (5), pp. 425-437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11517-012-0901-0
On the application of frequency selective common mode feedback for multifrequency EIT
Langlois, P., Wu, Y., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2015. On the application of frequency selective common mode feedback for multifrequency EIT. Physiological Measurement. 36 (6), pp. 1337-1350. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/36/6/1337
Determination of urinary cortisol, cortisone and 6-sulfatoxymelatonin using dilute and shoot ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry
Sniecinska-Cooper, A., Shah, A., Dimitriou, D., Iles, R., Butler, S. and Bayford, R. 2015. Determination of urinary cortisol, cortisone and 6-sulfatoxymelatonin using dilute and shoot ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography B. 978-79, pp. 18-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2014.11.016
Abnormal secretion of melatonin and cortisol in relation to sleep disturbances in children with Williams syndrome
Sniecinska-Cooper, A., Iles, R., Butler, S., Jones, H., Bayford, R. and Dimitriou, D. 2015. Abnormal secretion of melatonin and cortisol in relation to sleep disturbances in children with Williams syndrome. Sleep Medicine. 16 (1), pp. 94-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2014.09.003
Wearable sensors for patient-specific boundary shape estimation to improve the forward model for electrical impedance tomography (EIT) of neonatal lung function
Khor, J., Tizzard, A., Demosthenous, A. and Bayford, R. 2014. Wearable sensors for patient-specific boundary shape estimation to improve the forward model for electrical impedance tomography (EIT) of neonatal lung function. Physiological Measurement. 35 (6), pp. 1149-1161. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/35/6/1149
High-power CMOS current driver with accurate transconductance for electrical impedance tomography
Constantinou, L., Triantis, I., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2014. High-power CMOS current driver with accurate transconductance for electrical impedance tomography. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems. 8 (4), pp. 575-583. https://doi.org/10.1109/TBCAS.2013.2285481
The influence of ligand organization on the rate of uptake of gold nanoparticles by colorectal cancer cells
Lund, T., Callaghan, M., Williams, P., Turmaine, M., Bachmann, C., Rademacher, T., Roitt, I. and Bayford, R. 2011. The influence of ligand organization on the rate of uptake of gold nanoparticles by colorectal cancer cells. Biomaterials. 32 (36), pp. 9776-9784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.09.018
A tripolar current-steering stimulator ASIC for field shaping in deep brain stimulation
Valente, V., Demosthenous, A. and Bayford, R. 2011. A tripolar current-steering stimulator ASIC for field shaping in deep brain stimulation. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems. 6 (3), pp. 197-207. https://doi.org/10.1109/TBCAS.2011.2171036
New imaging mapping device for the detection and location of rectal cancer
Bayford, R., Borsic, A., Tizzard, A., Kantartzis, P., Liatsis, P. and Demosthenous, A. 2012. New imaging mapping device for the detection and location of rectal cancer. 13th International Conference on Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT 2012). Tianjin, China 23 - 25 May 2012
Tracking conductivity variations in the absence of accurate state evolution models in electrical impedance tomography
Hashemzadeh, P., Sahota, V., Callaghan, M., El Dib, H., Tizzard, A., Svensson, L. and Bayford, R. 2010. Tracking conductivity variations in the absence of accurate state evolution models in electrical impedance tomography. in: 4th International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedical Engineering (iCBBE), 2010 IEEE. pp. 1-6
GREIT: a unified approach to 2D linear EIT reconstruction of lung images
Adler, A., Arnold, J., Bayford, R., Borsic, A., Brown, B., Dixon, P., Faes, T., Frerichs, I., Gagnon, H., Garber, Y., Grychtol, B., Hahn, G., Lionheart, W., Malik, A., Patterson, R., Stocks, J., Tizzard, A., Weiler, N. and Wolf, G. 2009. GREIT: a unified approach to 2D linear EIT reconstruction of lung images. Physiological Measurement. 30 (6), pp. S35-S55. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/30/6/S03
Dynamic electrical impedance tomography image reconstruction of neonate lung function based on linear Kalman filter techniques
El Dib, H., Tizzard, A. and Bayford, R. 2009. Dynamic electrical impedance tomography image reconstruction of neonate lung function based on linear Kalman filter techniques. in: Dössel, O. and Schlegel, W. (ed.) IFMBE Proceedings, World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering September 7 - 12, 2009 Munich, Germany Munich, Germany Springer.
Development of a sensor network for dynamic boundary measurement in neonatal electrical impedance tomography (EIT)
Khor, J., Tizzard, A., Demosthenous, A. and Bayford, R. 2009. Development of a sensor network for dynamic boundary measurement in neonatal electrical impedance tomography (EIT). in: Dössel, O. and Schlegel, W. (ed.) IFMBE Proceedings, World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering September 7 - 12, 2009 Munich, Germany Munich, Germany Springer.
Effects of warping finite element meshes for the forward model of the head in EIT
Tizzard, A., Bayford, R., Horesh, L., Yerworth, R. and Holder, D. 2004. Effects of warping finite element meshes for the forward model of the head in EIT. in: Nowakowski, A. (ed.) Proceedings of the XII International Conference of Electrical Bioimpedance & V Electrical Impedance Tomography Gdansk, Poland Gdansk University of Technology.
Validation of finite element mesh warping for improving the forward model in EIT of brain function
Tizzard, A. and Bayford, R. 2007. Validation of finite element mesh warping for improving the forward model in EIT of brain function. in: Scharfetter, H. and Merwa, R. (ed.) IFMBE Proceedings, Part II - 13th International Conference on Electrical Bioimpedance and 8th Conference on Electrical Impedance Tomography 2007 Graz, Austria Springer Verlag.
Reconstruction algorithms to monitor neonate lung function
Bayford, R., Kantartzis, P., Tizzard, A., Yerworth, R., Liatsis, P. and Demosthenous, A. 2007. Reconstruction algorithms to monitor neonate lung function. in: Scharfetter, H. and Mervwa, R. (ed.) IFMBE Proceedings, Part II - 13th International Conference on Electrical Bioimpedance and 8th Conference on Electrical Impedance Tomography 2007 Graz, Austria Springer Verlag.
Generation and performance of patient-specific forward models for breast imaging with EIT
Tizzard, A., Borsic, A., Halter, R. and Bayford, R. 2010. Generation and performance of patient-specific forward models for breast imaging with EIT. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 224 (1), pp. 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/224/1/012034
A comparison study of electrodes for neonate electrical impedance tomography
Rahal, M., Khor, J., Demosthenous, A., Tizzard, A. and Bayford, R. 2009. A comparison study of electrodes for neonate electrical impedance tomography. Physiological Measurement. 30 (6), pp. 73-84. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/30/6/S05
Development of a neonate lung reconstruction algorithm using a wavelet AMG and estimated boundary form
Bayford, R., Kantartzis, P., Tizzard, A., Yerworth, R., Liatsis, P. and Demosthenous, A. 2008. Development of a neonate lung reconstruction algorithm using a wavelet AMG and estimated boundary form. Physiological Measurement. 29 (6), pp. S125-S138. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/29/6/S11
Generating accurate finite element meshes for the forward model of the human head in EIT
Tizzard, A., Horesh, L., Yerworth, R., Holder, D. and Bayford, R. 2005. Generating accurate finite element meshes for the forward model of the human head in EIT. Physiological Measurement. 26 (2), pp. S251-S262.
Solving the forward problem in electrical impedance tomography for the human head using IDEAS (integrated design engineering analysis software), a finite element modelling tool
Bayford, R., Gibson, A., Tizzard, A., Tidswell, T. and Holder, D. 2001. Solving the forward problem in electrical impedance tomography for the human head using IDEAS (integrated design engineering analysis software), a finite element modelling tool. Physiological Measurement. 22 (1), pp. 55-64.
Investigating the mechanism of deep brain stimulation using a dynamic complex model of the head incorporated with the complete model of electrode
Bayford, R., Tizzard, A., Yousif, N. and Liu, X. 2006. Investigating the mechanism of deep brain stimulation using a dynamic complex model of the head incorporated with the complete model of electrode. Clinical Neurophysiology. 117, pp. S219-S220.
Detection of cancer.
Bayford, R., Roitt, I., Rademacher, T., Demosthenous, A. and Iles, R. 2010. Detection of cancer.
Electric field characteristics of bipolar impedance sensors.
Kassanos, P., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2009. Electric field characteristics of bipolar impedance sensors. 11th International Congress of the IUPESM - Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering World Congress 2009 - for the benefit of the patient program. Munich, Germany 07 - 12 Sep 2009
A high output impedance current source for wideband bioimpedance measurements.
Hong, H., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2009. A high output impedance current source for wideband bioimpedance measurements. 11th International Congress of the IUPESM - Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering World Congress 2009 - for the benefit of the patient program.. Munich, Germany 07 - 12 Sep 2009
The use of EIT in the detection of regional lung dysfunction in prematurely born neonates.
Zifan, A., Liatsis, P. and Bayford, R. 2009. The use of EIT in the detection of regional lung dysfunction in prematurely born neonates. 11th International Congress of the IUPESM - Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering World Congress 2009 - for the benefit of the patient program. Munich, Germany 07 - 12 Sep 2009
Electrochemical impedance detection of hCGbeta: preliminary results and analysis in the development of lab on a chip technology.
Bayford, R., Kassanos, P., Demosthenous, A. and Iles, R. 2009. Electrochemical impedance detection of hCGbeta: preliminary results and analysis in the development of lab on a chip technology. 42nd IUPAC Congress: Chemistry Solutions SECC.. Glasgow, Scotland, UK. 02 - 07 Aug 2009
Statistical analysis for brain EIT images using SPM.
Zhang, Y., Passmore, P., Yerworth, R. and Bayford, R. 2005. Statistical analysis for brain EIT images using SPM. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp. 60-67 https://doi.org/10.1109/MEDIVIS.2005.17
New and emerging tomographic imaging techniques in medical and industrial applications. Introduction
Soleimani, M. and Bayford, R. 2009. New and emerging tomographic imaging techniques in medical and industrial applications. Introduction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical & Engineering Sciences. 367 (1900), pp. 3017-3019.
Visualization of multidimensional and multimodal tomographic medical imaging data, a case study
Zhang, Y., Passmore, P. and Bayford, R. 2009. Visualization of multidimensional and multimodal tomographic medical imaging data, a case study. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. A: Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 367 (1900), pp. 3121-3148. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2009.0084
Comparison of a new integrated current source with the modified Howland circuit for EIT applications
Hong, H., Rahal, M., Demosthenous, A. and Bayford, R. 2009. Comparison of a new integrated current source with the modified Howland circuit for EIT applications. Physiological Measurement. 30 (10), pp. 999-1007. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/30/10/001
Generating surfaces for registration and warping FE meshes for the forward model in EIT of brain function.
Tizzard, A., Holder, D., Bayford, R. and International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering 2005. Generating surfaces for registration and warping FE meshes for the forward model in EIT of brain function. Springer.
Effects of modelling layers and realistic geometry in reconstruction algorithms for EIT of brain function.
Liston, A., Bagshaw, A., Bayford, R., Tizzard, A., Tidswell, A., Dehghani, H. and Holder, D. 2003. Effects of modelling layers and realistic geometry in reconstruction algorithms for EIT of brain function. 4th Conference on Biomedical Applications of Electrical Impedance Tomography. Manchester, UK 23 - 25 Apr 2003 UMIST, Manchester, UK pp. 19 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17924
Modelling the effect of eye sockets in the human head using I-DEAS and its implication for imaging impedance change using Electrical Impedance Tomography.
Bayford, R., Gibson, A., Tizzard, A., Liston, A., Tidswell, A., Bagshaw, A. and Holder, D. 2001. Modelling the effect of eye sockets in the human head using I-DEAS and its implication for imaging impedance change using Electrical Impedance Tomography. Grimmes, S., Martinsen, O. and Bruvoll, H. (ed.) Oslo University of Oslo. pp. 391-396
Development of algorithms to image impedance changes inside the human head.
Bayford, R., Bagshaw, A., Liston, A., Tizzard, A. and Holder, D. 2002. Development of algorithms to image impedance changes inside the human head. The First Mummy Range Workshop on Electric Impedance Imaging. Colorado, US Colorado State University
Robustness of linear and nonlinear reconstruction algorithms for brain EITS.
Yerworth, R., Horesh, L., Bayford, R., Tizzard, A. and Holder, D. 2004. Robustness of linear and nonlinear reconstruction algorithms for brain EITS. Nowakowski, A., Wtorek, J., Bujnowski, A. and Janczulewicz, A. (ed.) Gdansk, Poland Gdansk University of Technology. pp. 499-502
Beyond the linear domain: the way forward in MFEIT reconstruction of the human head.
Horesh, L., Bayford, R., Yerworth, R., Tizzard, A., Ahadzi, G. and Holder, D. 2004. Beyond the linear domain: the way forward in MFEIT reconstruction of the human head. Nowakowski, A., Wtorek, J., Bujnowski, A. and Janczulewicz, A. (ed.) Gdansk, Poland Gdansk University of Technology. pp. 683-686
Two-dimensional finite element modelling of the neonatal head
Gibson, A., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2000. Two-dimensional finite element modelling of the neonatal head. Physiological Measurement. 21 (1), pp. 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/21/1/306
Validation of a 3D reconstruction algorithm for EIT of human brain function in a realistic head-shaped tank
Tidswell, A., Gibson, A., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2001. Validation of a 3D reconstruction algorithm for EIT of human brain function in a realistic head-shaped tank. Physiological Measurement. 22 (1), pp. 177-185. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/22/1/321
Electrical impedance tomography of human brain activity with a two-dimensional ring of scalp electrodes
Tidswell, A., Gibson, A., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2001. Electrical impedance tomography of human brain activity with a two-dimensional ring of scalp electrodes. Physiological Measurement. 22 (1), pp. 167-175. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/22/1/320
A feasibility study of remote monitoring of asthmatic patients.
Steel, S., Lock, S., Johnson, N., Martinez, Y., Marquilles, E. and Bayford, R. 2002. A feasibility study of remote monitoring of asthmatic patients. Journal of telemedicine and telecare. 8 (5), pp. 290-296.
Design and performance of the UCLH mark 1b 64 channel electrical impedance tomography (EIT) system, optimized for imaging brain function
Yerworth, R., Bayford, R., Cusick, G., Conway, M. and Holder, D. 2002. Design and performance of the UCLH mark 1b 64 channel electrical impedance tomography (EIT) system, optimized for imaging brain function. Physiological Measurement. 23 (1), pp. 149-158. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/23/1/314
A multi-shell algorithm to reconstruct EIT images of brain function
Liston, A., Bayford, R., Tidswell, A. and Holder, D. 2002. A multi-shell algorithm to reconstruct EIT images of brain function. Physiological Measurement. 23 (1), pp. 105-119. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/23/1/310
A comparison of headnet electrode arrays for electrical impedance tomography of the human head
Tidswell, A., Bagshaw, A., Holder, D., Yerworth, R., Eadie, L., Murray, S., Morgan, L. and Bayford, R. 2003. A comparison of headnet electrode arrays for electrical impedance tomography of the human head. Physiological Measurement. 24 (2), pp. 527-544. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/24/2/363
Electrical impedance tomography spectroscopy (EITS) for human head imaging
Yerworth, R., Bayford, R., Brown, B., Milnes, P., Conway, M. and Holder, D. 2003. Electrical impedance tomography spectroscopy (EITS) for human head imaging. Physiological Measurement. 24 (2), pp. 477-489. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/24/2/358
The application of the generalized vector sample pattern matching method for EIT image reconstruction
Dong, G., Bayford, R., Gao, S., Saito, Y., Yerworth, R., Holder, D. and Yan, W. 2003. The application of the generalized vector sample pattern matching method for EIT image reconstruction. Physiological Measurement. 24 (2), pp. 449-466. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/24/2/356
Neuromagnetic field strength outside the human head due to impedance changes from neuronal depolarization
Ahadzi, G., Liston, A., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2004. Neuromagnetic field strength outside the human head due to impedance changes from neuronal depolarization. Physiological Measurement. 25 (1), pp. 365-378. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/25/1/040
The spatial resolution improvement of EIT images by GVSPM-FOCUSS algorithm
Dong, G., Liu, H., Bayford, R., Yerworth, R., Gao, S., Holder, D. and Yan, W. 2004. The spatial resolution improvement of EIT images by GVSPM-FOCUSS algorithm. Physiological Measurement. 25 (1), pp. 209-225. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/25/1/027
The effect of layers in imaging brain function using electrical impedance tomograghy
Liston, A., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2004. The effect of layers in imaging brain function using electrical impedance tomograghy. Physiological Measurement. 25 (1), pp. 143-158. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/25/1/022
Spatial resolution improvement of 3D EIT images by the shrinking sLORETA-FOCUSS algorithm
Dong, G., Liu, H., Bayford, R., Yerworth, R., Schimpf, P. and Yan, W. 2005. Spatial resolution improvement of 3D EIT images by the shrinking sLORETA-FOCUSS algorithm. Physiological Measurement. 26 (2), pp. S199-S208. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/26/2/019
Multi-frequency electrical impedance tomography (EIT) of the adult human head: initial findings in brain tumours, arteriovenous malformations and chronic stroke, development of an analysis method and calibration
Romsauerova, A., McEwan, A., Horesh, L., Yerworth, R., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2006. Multi-frequency electrical impedance tomography (EIT) of the adult human head: initial findings in brain tumours, arteriovenous malformations and chronic stroke, development of an analysis method and calibration. Physiological Measurement. 27 (5), pp. S147-S161. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/27/5/S13
Factors limiting the application of electrical impedance tomography for identification of regional conductivity changes using scalp electrodes during epileptic seizures in humans
Fabrizi, L., Sparkes, M., Horesh, L., Abascal, J., McEwan, A., Bayford, R., Elwes, R., Binnie, C. and Holder, D. 2006. Factors limiting the application of electrical impedance tomography for identification of regional conductivity changes using scalp electrodes during epileptic seizures in humans. Physiological Measurement. 27 (5), pp. S163-S174. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/27/5/S14
Design and calibration of a compact multi-frequency EIT system for acute stroke imaging
McEwan, A., Romsauerova, A., Yerworth, R., Horesh, L., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2006. Design and calibration of a compact multi-frequency EIT system for acute stroke imaging. Physiological Measurement. 27 (5), pp. S199-S210. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/27/5/S17
Validation of a finite-element solution for electrical impedance tomography in an anisotropic medium
Abascal, J., Arridge, S., Lionheart, W., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2007. Validation of a finite-element solution for electrical impedance tomography in an anisotropic medium. Physiological Measurement. 28 (7), pp. S129-S140. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/28/7/S10
Use of statistical parametric mapping (SPM) to enhance electrical impedance tomography (EIT) image sets.
Yerworth, R., Zhang, Y., Tidswell, A., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2007. Use of statistical parametric mapping (SPM) to enhance electrical impedance tomography (EIT) image sets. Physiological Measurement. 28 (7), pp. S141-S151. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/28/7/S11
The peri-electrode space is a significant element of the electrode-brain interface in deep brain stimulation: a computational study
Yousif, N., Bayford, R., Bain, P. and Liu, X. 2007. The peri-electrode space is a significant element of the electrode-brain interface in deep brain stimulation: a computational study. Brain Research Bulletin. 74 (5), pp. 361-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.07.007
Quantifying the effects of the electrode-brain interface on the crossing electric currents in deep brain recording and stimulation
Yousif, N., Bayford, R., Wang, S. and Liu, X. 2008. Quantifying the effects of the electrode-brain interface on the crossing electric currents in deep brain recording and stimulation. Neuroscience. 152 (3), pp. 683-691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.01.023
13th International conference on electrical bioimpedance and 8th conference on electrical impedance tomography
Bayford, R. and Scharfetter, H. 2008. 13th International conference on electrical bioimpedance and 8th conference on electrical impedance tomography. Physiological Measurement. 29 (6), pp. E1-E2. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/29/6/E01
The influence of reactivity of the electrode-brain interface on the crossing electric current in therapeutic deep brain stimulation
Yousif, N., Bayford, R. and Liu, X. 2008. The influence of reactivity of the electrode-brain interface on the crossing electric current in therapeutic deep brain stimulation. Neuroscience. 156 (3), pp. 597-606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.07.051
Comparison of methods for optimal choice of the regularization parameter for linear electrical impedance tomography of brain function
Abascal, J., Arridge, S., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2008. Comparison of methods for optimal choice of the regularization parameter for linear electrical impedance tomography of brain function. Physiological Measurement. 29 (11), pp. 1319-1334. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/29/11/007
Towards the development of an electrochemical biosensor for hCGβ detection
Kassanos, P., Iles, R., Bayford, R. and Demosthenous, A. 2008. Towards the development of an electrochemical biosensor for hCGβ detection. Physiological Measurement. 29 (6), pp. S241-S254. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/29/6/S21
Task based visualization of 5D brain EIT data
Zhang, Y., Passmore, P. and Bayford, R. 2009. Task based visualization of 5D brain EIT data. SAC09: The 2009 ACM Symposium on Applied Computing. Honolulu Hawaii, USA 08 - 12 Mar 2009 New York Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). pp. 831-835 https://doi.org/10.1145/1529282.1529459
Improving the finite element forward model of the human head by warping using elastic deformation
Tizzard, A. and Bayford, R. 2007. Improving the finite element forward model of the human head by warping using elastic deformation. Physiological Measurement. 28 (7), pp. 163-182. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/28/7/S13
A comparison of techniques to optimize measurement of voltage changes in electrical impedance tomography by minimizing phase shift errors
Bayford, R., Eadie, L., Fitzgerald, A. and Holder, D. 2002. A comparison of techniques to optimize measurement of voltage changes in electrical impedance tomography by minimizing phase shift errors. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging. 21 (6), pp. 668-675. https://doi.org/10.1109/TMI.2002.800577
Bioimpedance; tomography (electrical impedance tomography).
Bayford, R. 2006. Bioimpedance; tomography (electrical impedance tomography). Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering. 8 (1), pp. 63-91. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.8.061505.095716
Using the GRID to improve the computation speed of electrical impedance tomography (EIT) reconstruction algorithms
Bayford, R., Fritschy, J., Holder, D. and Horesh, L. 2005. Using the GRID to improve the computation speed of electrical impedance tomography (EIT) reconstruction algorithms. Physiological Measurement.
Use of anisotropic modelling in electrical impedance tomography: description of method and preliminary assessment of utility in imaging brain function in the adult human head
Abascal, J., Arridge, S., Atkinson, D., Horesh, R., Fabrizi, L., De Lucia, M., Horesh, L., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2008. Use of anisotropic modelling in electrical impedance tomography: description of method and preliminary assessment of utility in imaging brain function in the adult human head. NeuroImage. 43 (2), pp. 258-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.07.023
The use of a European telemedicine system to examine the effects of pollutants and allergens on asthmatic respiratory health
Crabbe, H., Barber, A., Bayford, R., Hamilton, R., Jarrett, D. and Machin, N. 2004. The use of a European telemedicine system to examine the effects of pollutants and allergens on asthmatic respiratory health. Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.04.045
EIT images with improved spatial resolution using a realistic head model
Dong, G., Bayford, R., Liu, H., Zhou, Y. and Yan, W. 2006. EIT images with improved spatial resolution using a realistic head model. 28th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. New York, NY, USA 31 Aug - 03 Sep 2006 IEEE. pp. 1134-1137 https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMBS.2006.259794
Dynamic modelling of electrical current distribution in the deep structure of the brain
Bayford, R., Tizzard, A. and Liu, X. 2005. Dynamic modelling of electrical current distribution in the deep structure of the brain. in: The 3rd IEE International Seminar on Medical Applications of Signal Processing 2005 (Ref. No. 2005-1119) London,UK The Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET).
Applications of GRID in clinical neurophysiology and electrical impedance tomography of brain function
Fritschy, J., Horesh, L., Holder, D. and Bayford, R. 2005. Applications of GRID in clinical neurophysiology and electrical impedance tomography of brain function. Solomonides, T., McClatchey, R., Breton, V., Legré, Y., and Nørager, S. (ed.) Healthgrid 2005: 3rd annual conference of the Healthgrid association. Oxford, UK 2005 IOS Press. pp. 138-145
Visualization and post-processing of 5D Brain Images
Zhang, Y., Passmore, P. and Bayford, R. 2005. Visualization and post-processing of 5D Brain Images. 27th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Shanghai, China 01 - 04 Sep 2005 IEEE. pp. 1083-1086 https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMBS.2005.1616607
Electrical impedance tomography of human brain function using reconstruction algorithms based on the finite element method
Tizzard, A., Bagshaw, A., Bayford, R. and Liston, A. 2003. Electrical impedance tomography of human brain function using reconstruction algorithms based on the finite element method. NeuroImage. 20 (2), pp. 752-764. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00301-X
Three-dimensional electrical impedance tomography of human brain activity
Tidswell, A., Gibson, A., Bayford, R. and Holder, D. 2001. Three-dimensional electrical impedance tomography of human brain activity. NeuroImage. 13 (2), pp. 283-294. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2000.0698
Application of constrained optimisation techniques inelectrical impedance tomography
Bayford, R. 1994. Application of constrained optimisation techniques inelectrical impedance tomography. PhD thesis Middlesex University School of Science and Technology